DEPENDANCIES IN INDIA

Andaman and Nicobar Islands The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are two groups of islands in the Indian Ocean, extending approximately 970 km (600 mi) N–S and lying about 640 km (400 mi) W of both the Tenasserim coast of Myanmar and peninsular Thailand. Their total area is 8,293 sq km (3,202 sq mi); their population was estimated to exceed 188,000 in the mid-1990s. These islands together form a union territory...

FAMOUS INDIANS OF INDIA

Siddartha Gautama was (624–544 BC according to Sinhalese tradition; 563?–483? BC according to most modern scholars) later known as the Buddha (“the enlightened one”). Born in what is now Nepal, he spent much of his life in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, propounding the philosophical doctrines that were later to become Buddhism. Contemporary with the Buddha was Vardhamana (599?–527 BC), also known...

TOURISM, TRAVEL AND RECREATION IN INDIA

The national Department of Tourism maintains tourist information offices at home and abroad. It has constructed many facilities for viewing wildlife in forest regions (by minibus, boat, or elephant) and operates tourist lodges in wildlife sanctuaries. The principal tourist attractions are India’s distinctive music, dance, theater, festivals, and cuisines; the great cities of Calcutta, Mumbai (formerly...

ORGANIZATIONS IN INDIA

Cultural activities, especially traditional arts and crafts, are promoted throughout India by the National Academy of Fine Arts; the National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama; the National Center for the Performing Arts; and the National Academy of Letters. Other state organizations for the furthering of cultural activities include the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, the Indian Council...

MEDIA IN INDIA

All postal and telegraph and most telephone services are owned and operated by the government. International telephone services, both radio and cable, are available between India and all major countries of the world. In 2000, there were 27.7 million telephone lines and 2.93 million cellular phones in use. All-India Radio (AIR), government-owned, operates short- and medium-wave transmission through...

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUM IN INDIA

The National Library in Calcutta, with over 221 million volumes, is, by far, the largest in the country, and possibly the world. Some of the other leading libraries are the New Delhi Public Library (1.4 million volumes), the Central Secretariat Library in New Delhi (700,000 volumes), and the libraries of some of the larger universities. The Khuda Baksh Oriental Library in Patna, with a collection...

EDUCATION IN INDIA

According to 2000 UNESCO estimates, 44.2% of India’s population was illiterate (males, 31.4%; females, 57.9%). This figure represents a slow decline from the 59.2% illiteracy rate reported in 1981. In 1986, the National Education Policy (NPE) was adopted in order to bring about major reforms in the system, primarily universalization of primary education. In 1988, a national literacy mission was launched,...

HOUSING IN INDIA

Though pogress has been made toward improving the generally primitive housing in which most Indians live, there are still some deficits in housing supply and access to basic utilities. A number of subsidized, low-cost housing schemes have been launched by the government, but the goal of providing a house for every homeless family cannot be met because of the prohibitive cost. The sixth five-year plan...

HEALTH IN INDIA

Great improvements have taken place in public health since independence, but the general health picture remains far from satisfactory. The government is paying increasing attention to integrated health, maternity, and child care in rural areas. An increasing number of community health workers and doctors are being sent to rural health centers. Primary health care is provided to the rural population...

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA

India’s governments have established an extensive social welfare system. Programs for children include supplementary nutrition for expectant mothers and for children under seven years of age, immunization and health programs, vacation camps for lowincome families, and training for adolescents. There are also services for the blind, deaf, mentally retarded, and orthopedically handicapped. Programs...

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA

Under a series of five-year plans through 2000, the government became a participant in many industrial fields and increased its regulation of existing private commerce and industry. Long the owner-operator of most railway facilities, all radio broadcasting, post, and telegraph facilities, arms and ammunition factories, and river development programs, the government reserved for itself the right to...

FOREIGN INVESTMENT IN INDIA

Until recently, foreign investment remained closely regulated. Rules and incentives directed the flow of foreign capital mainly toward consumer industries and light engineering, with major capital-intensive projects reserved for the public sector. Under the Foreign Exchange Regulation Act of 1973, which went into effect on 1 January 1974, all branches of foreign companies in which nonresident interest...

CUSTOMS AND DUTIES IN INDIA

The majority of imports and some exports are subject to tariffs. There are both revenue and protective tariffs, although the former are more important and have long been a major source of central government income. The Indian government has been steadily reducing tariff rates in order to increase trade and investment. A 35% tariff ceiling was set in the 2001–2002 budget. However, India’s tariffs are...

TAXATION IN INDIA

Taxes are levied by the central government, the state governments, and the various municipal governments. The sources of central government tax revenue are union excise duties, the central value-added tax or CENVAT, corporate and personal income (nonagricultural) taxes, wealth taxes, and customs duties. The gift tax was abolished in January 1998. State government sources, in general order of importance,...

PUBLIC FINANCE IN INDIA

The government’s financial year extends from 1 April to 31 March, and the budget is presented to the parliament on the last day of February. The executive branch has considerable control over public finance. Thus, while parliament can oversee and investigate public expenditures and may reduce the budget, it cannot expand the budget, and checks exist that prevent it from delaying passage. Budgets in...

INSURANCE IN INDIA

The life insurance business was formally nationalized on 1 September 1956 by the establishment of the Life Insurance Corp. of India (LIC), which absorbed the life insurance business of 245 Indian and foreign companies. LIC also transacts business in certain African and Asian countries where there are large Indian populations. The general insurance business was nationalized as of 1 January 1973, and...

BANKING AND SECURITIES IN INDIA

A well-established banking system exists in India as a result of British colonialism. The Reserve Bank of India, founded in 1935 and nationalized in 1949, is the central banking and note-issuing authority. The Reserve Bank funds the Deposit Insurance and Credit Guarantee Corporation, which provides deposit insurance coverage to the banking sector. The largest public-sector bank is the State Bank of...

BALANCE OF PAYMENT IN INDIA

India has a chronic deficit on current accounts. What bridges the gap between payments and receipts is mainly external aid (especially nonproject assistance), tourism earnings, and remittances from Indians working abroad. Heavy imports of food grains and armament purchases caused a decline in India’s foreign exchange reserves in the mid-1960s. An economic recovery from 1968–69, however, eased the...

FOREIGN TRADE IN INDIA

Initially, India’s foreign trade followed a pattern common to all underdeveloped countries: exporting raw materials and food in exchange for manufactured goods. The only difference in India’s case was that it also exported processed textiles, yarn, and jute goods. Until the late 1980s, the government’s strongly import substitution-oriented industrial policy limited the significance of exports for...

DOMESTIC TRADE IN INDIA

Under a nationwide scheme launched in 1979 for the distribution of essential commodities, goods are procured by the central government and then supplied to citizens. Each state has its own consumer cooperative federation; all of these groups are under the aegis of the National Cooperative Consumers Federation with the Minister of Consumer Affairs and Public Distribution. By 2000, more than 26,000...

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN INDIA

Total expenditures on research and development amounted to 41.9 billion rupees in 1987–97; India had an estimated 149,000 scientists and engineers and 108,000 technicians engaged in research and development that year. Allocations are divided among government and industry, with government providing the major share. There has been a marked growth in the training of engineers and technicians. In 1987–97,...

INDUSTRY IN INDIA

Modern industry has advanced fairly rapidly since independence, and the industrial sector now contributes 26.9% of the GDP. Large modern steel mills and many fertilizer plants, heavymachinery plants, oil refineries, locomotive and automotive works have been constructed; the metallurgical, chemical, cement, and oil-refining industries have also expanded. Moreover, India has established its role in...

ENERGY AND POWER IN INDIA

Petroleum reserves were estimated at 4.8 billion barrels in early 2002. From less than 100,000 tons in 1951, crude oil production rose to 37.1 million tons in 1995. Production was 1.9 million barrels per day in 2001, and expected to grow to 3.4 million barrels per day by 2010. Oil exploration and production are undertaken in joint ventures between government and private foreign companies. Oil accounts...

MINING IN INDIA

Well endowed with industrial minerals, India’s leading industries in 2002 included steel, cement, mining, and petroleum, and gems and jewelry comprised the country’s second-leading export commodity. The minerals industry of India produced more than 80 mineral commodities in the form of ores, metals, industrial minerals, and mineral fuels and was among the world’s leading producers of iron ore, bituminous...

FORESTRY IN INDIA

The major forestlands lie in the foothills of the Himalayas, the hills of Assam state, the northern highlands of the Deccan, the Western Ghats, and the Andaman Islands. Other forestlands are generally scrub and poor secondary growth of restricted commercial potential. India’s forests are mostly broad-leaved; the most important commercial species are sal (10.9% of forest trees), mixed conifers (8.1%),...

FISHING IN INDIA

Fishing is an important secondary source of income to some farmers and a primary occupation in small fishing villages. Almost three-fifths of the catch consists of sea fish. The bulk is marketed fresh; of the remainder, more than half is sun-dried. Fish and fish products account for about 2.5–3% of the total export value. Deep-sea fishing is not done on a large scale. Inland fishing is most developed...

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN INDIA

The livestock population of India is huge and animals as a whole play an important role in the agricultural economy even though they often receive inadequate nourishment. Slaughter of cattle in India is prohibited in all but a few states since Hindus believe that cows and other animals may contain reincarnated human souls. The slaughter of buffaloes is not as offensive to the religious beliefs of...

AGRICULTURE IN INDIA

In 1998, of the total land area of 297 million hectares (734 million acres), the net sown area was 169 million hectares (420 million acres), or about 57%. The irrigated area totaled 59 million hectares (145.8 million acres) in 1998. At least 10 million hectares (24.7 million acres) were redistributed under land reform programs during 1951–79. Agriculture employs about 60% of India’s population and...

LABOUR IN INDIA

In 1999, India’s active labor force totaled 406 million. In that year, 60% were employed in agriculture, 17% in industry, and 23% in services. The unemployment rate in 2002 stood at 8.8%. In 2002, there were an estimated 13 to 15 million organized industrial workers, all belonging to the formal economy, which accounted for 30 million workers, or less than 10% of the total labor force. Most trade unions...

INCOME OF INDIA

The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) reports that in 2002 India’s gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $2.66 trillion. The per capita GDP was estimated at $2,540. The average inflation rate in 2002 was 5.4%. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value...