DEPENDANCIES IN INDIA

Andaman and Nicobar Islands The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are two groups of islands in the Indian Ocean, extending approximately 970 km (600 mi) N–S and lying about 640 km (400 mi) W of both the Tenasserim coast of Myanmar and peninsular Thailand. Their total area is 8,293 sq km (3,202 sq mi); their population was estimated to exceed 188,000 in the mid-1990s. These islands together form a union territory with its capital at Port Blair. The legal system is under the jurisdiction of the high court of Calcutta. The Andaman Islands extend more than 354 km (220 mi) between 10° and 14°N and 92°12′ and 94°17′ E. Of the 204 islands in the group, the three largest are North, Middle, and South Andaman; since these are separated only by narrow inlets, they are often referred to together as Great Andaman. Little Andaman lies to the south. The Nicobars extend south from the Andamans between 10° and 6°N and 92°43′ and 93°57′ E. Of the 19 islands, Car Nicobar, 121 km (75 mi) S of Little Andaman, holds more than half the total population; the largest, Great Nicobar, 146 km (91 mi) NW of Sumatra, is sparsely populated. The Andamans were occupied by the British in 1858, the Nicobars in 1869; sporadic settlements by British, Danish, and other groups were known previously. During World War II (1939–45), the islands were occupied by Japanese forces. They became a union territory in 1956. That same year, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Protection of Aboriginal Tribes) Act came into force; this act, designed to protect the primitive tribes that live in the islands, prohibited outsiders from carrying on trade or industry in the islands without a special license. Six different tribes live in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the largest being the Nicobarese. There are lesser numbers of Andamanese, Onges, Jarawas, Sentinalese, and Shompens in the dependency. Access to tribal areas is prohibited. Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy. The principal crops are rice and coconuts; some sugarcane, fruits, and vegetables are also grown. There is little industry other than a sawmill and plywood and match factories, but the government is making plans to promote tourism in the islands. These plans include the construction of a 1,000-bed hotel, a casino, and dutyfree shopping facilities in Port Blair. Lakshadweep The union territory of Lakshadweep consists of the Laccadive, Minicoy, and Amindivi Islands, a scattered group of small coral atolls and reefs in the Arabian Sea between 10° and 13°N and 71°43′ and 73°43′ E and about 320 km (200 mi) W of Kerala state. Their total area is about 32 sq km (12 sq mi). Minicoy, southernmost of the islands, is the largest. In the mid-1990s, the population of Lakshadweep was estimated to exceed 40,000. The inhabitants of the Laccadives and Amindivis are Malayalam-speaking Muslims; those on Minicoy are also Muslim, but speak a language similar to Sinhalese. The islanders are skilled fishermen and trade their marine products and island-processed coir in the Malabar ports of Kerala. The main cottage industry is coir spinning. Politically, these islands were under the control of the state of Madras until 1956. The present territorial capital is at Kavaratti. Judicial affairs are under the jurisdiction of the high court of Kerala.

FAMOUS INDIANS OF INDIA

Siddartha Gautama was (624–544 BC according to Sinhalese tradition; 563?–483? BC according to most modern scholars) later known as the Buddha (“the enlightened one”). Born in what is now Nepal, he spent much of his life in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, propounding the philosophical doctrines that were later to become Buddhism. Contemporary with the Buddha was Vardhamana (599?–527 BC), also known as Mahavira (“great hero”), a saintly thinker of Bihar from whose teachings evolved Jainism. Some of the noteworthy religious and political leaders were Chandragupta (r.321?–297? BC), founder of the Maurya Dynasty; Asoka (r.273–232 BC), who made Buddhism the religion of his empire; Chandragupta II (r. AD 375?–413), whose era marked a high point of Hindu art and literature; Shivaji (1627?– 80), a hero of much Hindu folklore; Nanak (1469–1539), whose teachings are the basis of Sikhism; and Govind Singh (1666– 1708), the guru who gave Sikhism its definitive form. Akbar (1542–1605) greatly expanded the Mughal Empire, which reached its height under Shah Jahan (1592–1666), builder of the Taj Mahal, and his son, the fanatical emperor Aurangzeb (1618– 1707). Sanskrit grammarian Panini (5th?–4th? cents. BC), wrote the first book on scientific linguistics. The Bengali educator and reformer Rammohan Roy (1772–1833) has been called “the father of modern India.” Swami Vivekananda (1863–1902), founder of the nonsectarian Ramakrishna Mission and a great traveler both in India and abroad, did much to explain the Hindu philosophy to the world and to India as well. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1888–1975), a leading 20th-century Hindu scholar and philosopher, also served as president of India from 1962 to 1967. Another revered religious philosopher was Meher Baba (1894–1969). The rising position of India in science and industry is well exemplified by Jamshedji Nusserwanji Tata (1822–1904), founder of the nation’s first modern iron and steel works as well as many other key industries; the physicist Jagadis Chandra Bose (1858–1937), noted for his research in plant life; Srinivasa Ramanujan (1887–1919), an amazingly original, although largely self-taught, mathematician; Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman (1888–1970), who was awarded the 1930 Nobel Prize for research in physics; Chandrasekhara Subramanyan (1910–1995), also a Nobel Prize laureate in physics, and Vikram A. Sarabhai (1919–71), the founder of the Indian space program. Mother Teresa (Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu, 1910–97, in what is now Yugoslavia) won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1979 for her 30 years of work among Calcutta’s poor. In modern times no Indian so completely captured the Indian masses and had such a deep spiritual effect on so many throughout the world as Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (1869– 1948). Reverently referred to by millions of Indians as the Mahatma (“the great-souled one”), Gandhi is considered the greatest Indian since the Buddha. His unifying ability and his unusual methods of nonviolent resistance contributed materially to the liberation of India in 1947. A leading disciple of the Mahatma, Vinayak (“Vinoba”) Narahari Bhave (1895–1982), was an agrarian reformer who persuaded wealthy landowners to give about 600,000 hectares (1,500,000 acres) of tillable land to India’s poor. Gandhi’s political heir, Jawaharlal Nehru (1889–1964), had a hold on the Indian people almost equal to that of the Mahatma. Affectionately known as Chacha (Uncle) Nehru, he steered India through its first 17 years of independence and played a key role in the independence struggle. Indira Gandhi (1917–84), the daughter of Nehru and prime minister from 1966 to 1977 and again from 1980 to 1984, continued her father’s work in modernizing India and played an important role among the leaders of nonaligned nations. Her son Rajiv (1944–91) succeeded her as prime minister and, in the 1985 election, achieved for himself and his party the largest parliamentary victory since India became independent. A classical Sanskrit writer in Indian history was the poet and playwright Kalidasa (fl. 5th cent. AD), whose best-known work is Shakuntala. In modern times, Rabindranath Tagore (1861– 1941), the great Bengali humanist, influenced Indian thought in his many songs and poems. Tagore received the Nobel Prize in literature in 1913 and through his lifetime wrote more than 50 dramas and about 150 books of verse, fiction, and philosophy. Another Bengali writer highly esteemed was the novelist Bankim Chandra Chatterjee (1838–94). Tagore and Chatterjee are the authors, respectively, of India’s national anthem and national song. The novel in English is a thriving genre; notable modern practitioners include Rasipuram Krishnaswamy Narayan (1906– 2001), Bhabani Bhattacharya (1906–88), and Raja Rao (b.1909) and Khushwaut Singh. Influential poets of the last two centuries include the Bengalis Iswar Chandra Gupta (1812–59) and Sarojini Naidu (1879–1949), known as “the nightingale of India,” a close associate of Gandhi and a political leader in her own right. Modern interpreters of the rich Indian musical tradition include the composer and performer Ravi Shankar (b.1920) and the performer and educator Ali Akbar Khan (b.1922). Zubin Mehta (b.1936) is an orchestral conductor of international renown. Uday Shankar (1900?–1977), a dancer and scholar, did much to stimulate Western interest in Indian dance. Tanjore Balasaraswati (1919?–84) won renown as a classical dancer and teacher. Preeminent in the Indian cinema is the director Satyajit Ray (1921–1992).

TOURISM, TRAVEL AND RECREATION IN INDIA

The national Department of Tourism maintains tourist information offices at home and abroad. It has constructed many facilities for viewing wildlife in forest regions (by minibus, boat, or elephant) and operates tourist lodges in wildlife sanctuaries. The principal tourist attractions are India’s distinctive music, dance, theater, festivals, and cuisines; the great cities of Calcutta, Mumbai (formerly Bombay), and Madras; and such monuments as the Red Fort and Jama Masjid mosque in Delhi, the Taj Mahal at Agra, and the Amber Palace in Jaipur. Tourists and pilgrims also flock to the sacred Ganges River, the Ajanta temple caves, the temple at Bodhgaya where the Buddha is said to have achieved enlightenment, and many other ancient temples and tombs throughout the country. In general, all visitors must have a valid passport and an entry, transit, or tourist visa. Inoculation against cholera is recommended. The big-game hunting for which India was once famous is now banned, but excellent fishing is available, and there are many golf courses. Cricket, field hockey, polo, football (soccer), volleyball, and basketball are all popular, as are pony-trekking in the hill stations and skiing in northern India. All major cities have comfortable Western-style hotels that cater to tourists; in 1999 there were 72,114 hotel rooms with 144,228 beds and a 50% occupancy rate. In 2000, tourist arrivals numbered 2,641,157, with Europe being the most important generating region of tourists to India. Tourist receipts totaled $3.1 billion. As of 1999, the US government estimated the cost of staying in New Delhi at $260 per day. Daily expenses were estimated at $268 in Calcutta, $257 in Mumbai (formerly Bombay), and $215 in Bangalore.

ORGANIZATIONS IN INDIA

Cultural activities, especially traditional arts and crafts, are promoted throughout India by the National Academy of Fine Arts; the National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama; the National Center for the Performing Arts; and the National Academy of Letters. Other state organizations for the furthering of cultural activities include the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, the Indian Council for Cultural Relations, and the National Book Trust. There are a great many private cultural and institutional organizations based on religion and philosophy, language (including Sanskrit and Pali), drama, music and dancing, modern writing, the classics, and painting and sculpture. There are a number of scholarly and professional societies and associations focused on education and research in various scientific and medical fields, including the national Indian Medical Association. There are many political, commercial, industrial, and labor organizations, and rural cooperatives. Almost all commercial and industrial centers have chambers of commerce. The Center of Indian Trade Unions and All India Trade Union Congress are umbrella organizations representing the rights of worker’s. Notable national youth organizations include the All India Students Federation, Girl Guides and Scouts of India, Indian National Youth Organization, National Council of YMCA’s of India, Service Civil-Youth Volunteers of India, Student Christian Movement of India, Student Federation of India, The Bharat Scouts and Guides, Tibetan Youth Congress, United Nations Youth Organization of India, and Young Catholic Students of India. National women’s organizations include All India Women’s Conference, Women’s Equal Rights Group, and Women’s Protection League. There are a wide variety of international organizations with chapters in India, including Christian Children’s Fund, Defence for Children International, Habitat for Humanity, the Red Cross, Amnesty International, Kiwanis, and Lion’s Clubs.

MEDIA IN INDIA

All postal and telegraph and most telephone services are owned and operated by the government. International telephone services, both radio and cable, are available between India and all major countries of the world. In 2000, there were 27.7 million telephone lines and 2.93 million cellular phones in use. All-India Radio (AIR), government-owned, operates short- and medium-wave transmission through 148 stations and broadcasts in all major languages and dialects for home consumption. AIR also operates external services in 24 foreign and 36 Indian languages. There are privately licensed radio stations, but they are only permitted to broadcast educational or entertainment programming. News broadcasting by independent stations is prohibited. In 1959, India’s first television station was inaugurated in Delhi, and color television broadcasting was inaugurated in 1982. By the end of 1985, the government’s Doordarshan television network operated 22 broadcasting centers. As of 1999, there were, altogether, 153 AM and 92 FM radio stations and 562 television stations. In 2000, there were 121 radios and 78 television sets for every 1,000 people. The School Television Section broadcasts regular in-school instruction programs on selected subjects. India has a thriving film industry, centered at Mumbai (formerly Bombay), Madras, Calcutta, and Bangalore. Indians are avid film-goers and users of videocassettes. In 2001, there were five million Internet subscribers served by about 43 service providers. The first newspaper in India, an English-language weekly issued in Calcutta in 1780, was followed by English-language papers in other cities. The first Indian-language newspaper (in Hindi) appeared in Varanasi (Benares) in 1845. There are hundreds of newspapers in circulation throughout the country, published in some 85 languages, primarily Hindi, English, Bengali, Urdu, and Marathi. The majority of Indian newspapers are under individual ownership and have small circulations. About 30% are published in Delhi, Mumbai (formerly Bombay), Calcutta, and Madras. The principal national English-language newspapers are the Indian Express, with editions published in Mumbai (formerly Bombay) and 10 other cities, and the Times of India, published in Ahmadabad, Mumbai, Delhi, and three other cities. The largest Hindi daily is the Navbharat Times, published in Mumbai. Principal dailies (with estimated 2002 circulation) are as follows: LANGUAGE CIRCULATION MUMBAI (FORMERLY BOMBAY) Indian Express English 576,200 Times of India English 536,166 The Economic Times English 336,060 Lokasatta Marathi 258,090 Maharashtra Times Marathi NA CALCUTTA Jugantar Bengali 302,000 The Telegraph English 234,500 Aajkaal Bengali 157,713 DELHI Navbharat Times Hindi 418,500 Punjab Kesari Hindi 173,390 Indian Express English 130,000 Hindustan Hindi 98,900 MADRAS The Hindu English 300,320 Thanthi Tamil 297,797 Dinamani Tamil 178,230 CALICUT Mathirubhumi Malayalam 454,351 KOTTAYAM Malayala Manorama Malayalam 1,013,590 (nationwide circulation) KANPUR Dainik Jagran Hindi 409,480 In 1976, the four leading Indian news agencies—the Press Trust of India (English), United News of India (English), Hindustan Samachar (Hindi), and Samachar Bharati (Hindi)— merged to form Samachar, which means “news” in Hindi. The merger followed the cancellation by AIR of subscriptions to all four services. Samachar was dissolved in 1978, and as of 1991 there were three separate agencies: Indian News and Features Alliance, Press Trust of India and United News of India. Freedom of the press has been nominally ensured by liberal court interpretations of the constitution, but the government has long held the right to impose “reasonable restrictions” in the interest of “public order, state security, decency, and morality.” The government’s censorship of newspapers imposed in June 1975 was declared illegal by the courts, and press restrictions proclaimed by Indira Gandhi’s government in 1976 were relaxed by the Janata government in 1977. The independent Press Council, which had been abolished in 1975, was restored in 1979 with the function of upholding freedom of the press. On a day-today basis, the press is essentially unfettered, and news magazines abound in addition to the newspapers.

LIBRARIES AND MUSEUM IN INDIA

The National Library in Calcutta, with over 221 million volumes, is, by far, the largest in the country, and possibly the world. Some of the other leading libraries are the New Delhi Public Library (1.4 million volumes), the Central Secretariat Library in New Delhi (700,000 volumes), and the libraries of some of the larger universities. The Khuda Baksh Oriental Library in Patna, with a collection of rare manuscripts in Arabic, Urdu, and Farsi, is one of 10 libraries declared “institutions of national importance” by an act of parliament. The National Archives of India, in New Delhi, is the largest repository of documents in Asia, with 25 km (16 mi) of shelf space. There is an extensive public library system as well as cultural and religious institutions and libraries throughout the country. Noted botanical gardens are located in Calcutta, Mumbai (formerly Bombay), Lucknow, Ootacamund, Bangalore, Madras, and Darjeeling, and well-stocked zoological gardens are found in Calcutta, Mumbai, Madras, Trivandrum, Hyderabad, Karnataka, and Jodhpur.Most of India’s hundreds of museums specialize in one or several aspects of Indian or South Asian culture; these include 25 archaeological museums at ancient sites, such as Konarak, Amravati, and Sarnath. Some of the more important museums are the Indian Museum in Calcutta, the Prince of Wales Museum of Western India in Mumbai (formerly Bombay), and the National Museum and the National Gallery of Modern Art, both in New Delhi. There are also municipal museums throughout the country and dozens of museums and galleries devoted to prominent South Asian artists. There are science museums in Bhopal, Calcutta, Mumbai (formerly Bombay), and New Delhi. Bhavongor houses the Gandhi Museum, one of several sites devoted to the history of the national hero. In 2001 the Broadcasting Museum was founded in Delhi. There also are thousands of architectural masterpieces of antiquity—the palaces, temples, mausoleums, fortresses, mosques, formal gardens, deserted cities, and rock-hewn monasteries—found in every section of the subcontinent.